FSFLIGHTSCHOOL.COM | Student Pilot Resources

Knowing what altitude to cruise enroute for different headings is one of the most common questions raised during online flights. This information is an absolute must for Aviation safety and it also forms part of aviation law. Below are the current altitudes for the United States.

VFR- Heading 000-179 (Easterly), Odd thousands + 500ft (3,500 5,500 etc), Heading 180-359 (Westerly) , Even thousands + 500ft (4,500 6,500 etc)

IFR-Heading 000-179 (Easterly), Odd thousands (3,000 5,000 7000 etc), Heading 180-359 (Westerly), Even thousands (6,000 8,000 10,000 etc)
Altitudes above 18,000 feet (FL180) - All flights above 18,000 feet are IFR

Between FL180-FL290- Heading 000-179, Odd Flight Levels (FL190, FL230, etc), Heading 180-359 - Even Flight Levels (FL180, FL220, etc)

At FL290 and Above- Heading 000-179, Every other odd Flight Level starting at FL290 (FL290, FL330, etc)
Heading 180-359, Every other odd Flight Level starting at FL310 (FL310, FL350, etc)

Information Courtesy of Air Sea Tac Virtual

Approach Lights

Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) -The VASI is a system of lights so arranged to provide visual descent guidance information during the approach to a runway. These lights are visible from 3-5 miles during the day and up to 20 miles or more at night. The visual glide path of the VASI provides safe obstruction clearance within plus or minus 10 degrees of the extended runway centerline and to 4 NM from the runway threshold. Descent, using the VASI, should not be initiated until the aircraft is visually aligned with the runway. Lateral course guidance is provided by the runway or runway lights.

Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI)- The precision approach path indicator (PAPI) uses light units similar to the VASI but are installed in a single row of either two or four light units. These systems have an effective visual range of about 5 miles during the day and up to 20 miles at night. The row of light units is normally installed on the left side of the runway and the glide path indications are as depicted.

ATC Procedures/Basic Flight Information

Explanation of Changes	Explanation of Changes for this Basic Manual
Preface	Subscription Information, Comments/Corrections Form, Publication Schedule, General Information
Chapter 1	Navigation Aids
Chapter 2	Aeronautical Lighting and Other Airport Visual Aids
Chapter 3	Airspace
Chapter 4	Air Traffic Control
Chapter 5	Air Traffic Procedures
Chapter 6	Emergency Procedures
Chapter 7	Safety of Flight
Chapter 8	Medical Facts for Pilots
Chapter 9	Aeronautical Charts and Related Publications
Chapter 10	Helicopter Operations
Appendices	Bird/Other Wildlife Strike Report, Volcanic Activity Reporting Form, Abbreviations/Acronyms
All data linked to the Air Traffic Publications Library

Instruments

Airspeed Indicator

The airspeed indicator shows the speed of the air flowing around your aircraft. The altimeter will not show your ground speed. Aircraft speed is measured in knots. (nautical miles per hour) You will hear terms such as IAS (Indicated Air Speed), TAS (True Air Speed) and GS (Ground Speed) when talking about aircraft speeds. The Airspeed indicator also has many colored arcs. Below are with the arcs mean.

	VS0: bottom of white arc.
	VS: bottom of green arc.
	VFE: top of white arc.
	VNO: top of green and bottom of yellow arcs.
	VNE: red line and top of yellow arc. (For More V-Speeds Click Here)

Altimeter

The altimeter shows height above Mean Sea Level (MSL), the instrument measures changes in barometric pressure. It is important that you reset the altimeter every 20 minutes as it is affected by the current weather conditions. (you can do this by pressing the 'B' key) The instrument to the left is calibrated for 29.92 (two niner niner two) which is the standard pressure reading and shows a current altitude of 1,040 feet. Remember this reading is Altitude MSL, if the ground underneath you is at 840 feet then you are only 200 feet Above Ground Level (AGL).

Vertical Speed Indicator

The VSI indicates your rate of climb (or descent) in feet per minute. This instrument shows you when you are climbing and descending. The picture on the left shows we are in level flight and no rate of climb or decent. (VSI = 0).

Attitude Indicator

Shows the aircrafts attitude relative to the horizon. The outer ring shows increasing bank angles of 10, 20, 30, 60 and 90 degrees, while the two white diagonal lines show bank angles of 15 and 45 degrees. The central scale indicates nose pitch above and below the horizon in 5 degree increments.

Heading Indicator

This instrument is a directional gyro and shows you the direction you are flying. The outer ring numbers are at 30 degree intervals with 5 and 10 degree increments between. The image shows that we have a heading on the dial of 3, which is 30 degrees. This is normally said as Zero Three Zero degrees. Remember to always multiply the displayed heading by 10 to say the correct heading.

Turn Coordinator

Turn Coordinator (aka Inclinometer) indicates the Roll and Yaw of the aircraft. The aircraft image shows you what direction you are turning. The lower part of the instrument is a ball in a glass tube, when centered it indicates that the nose of the aircraft is pointing in the direction of the turn. To keep the ball in the center you use your rudder pedals.

Pitot Static Instruments
The pitot static system provides the air pressure for the instruments above. The two sources for the pitot static instruments are the pitot tube and the static pressure port.

Gyroscopic Instruments
Gyroscopic instruments are electrical and vacuum driven. Usually the Heading Indicator and Attitude Indicator are vacuum driven. The Turn Coordinator most of the time is electrical driven.

Navigation

Around airports: SIDs and STARs

About SIDs and STARs:
When flying in or out of busy airports, pilots use what are called Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs) and Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs). These procedures are used because it would be extremely difficult for an Air Traffic Controller to give radar vectors to every pilot within the crowded airspace around a busy airport. By using SIDs and STARs both the pilot and the controller knows where the aircraft should be throughout the procedure. This means less workload for pilot and controller, so the controller can concentrate on maintaining separation between multiple aircraft and the pilot can concentrate on flying. Communication between pilot and controller is no less important, however. Remember: the instructions of the controller have precedence over the described procedure.

In case of a communication failure, it is vital that the pilot be aware of his Clearance Limit. If neither the controller nor the SID/STAR chart specifies otherwise, the Clearance Limit for flying SIDs and STARs is the last waypoint of the procedure followed. When you reach your Clearance Limit and have no further clearance from the ATC you cannot continue your flight, but you must hold until further instruction.

Flying SIDs and STARs requires a careful study of the relevant charts before departure, so that the pilot has got a general comprehension of the procedures. It's too late to search for waypoints when the aircraft is airborne. For well prepared pilots, however, SIDs and STARs are not so difficult to fly, especially if they have entered the SID/STAR routing into the FMC included in FS Navigator.

A SID or STAR consists of a title, a brief description of the procedure to be followed, a main diagram (vertical projection of the flight path), and sometimes a profile view of the flight path.

Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs):
A SID is a predetermined route which guides the aircraft from the departing runway to the first waypoint on its flight plan. From this waypoint the aircraft flies its planned route. As each airport has got at least two runways you can depart from there are usually several SID routings to each waypoint depending on the active runway. In addition, there may be different SIDs for different aircraft types.

E.G. one of the main waypoints in the Dublin area is LIFFY intersection. There are 8 SIDs out of Dublin Airport that takes you to LIFFY. These eight SIDs consist of two routes from each of the main runways (10, 28, 16, 34) - one route for Category ‘C’ and ‘D’ aircraft, and one route for Category ‘A’ and ‘B’ aircraft. Aircraft categories are specified in the Operations Manuals.

The main diagram shows the flight path to be followed. The most important items on the diagram are:

	Waypoints (defined by Navaids, Headings and Distances) - must be followed precisely
	Altitude and Speed Restrictions - must be observed except when ATC instructs otherwise

Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs):
A STAR is a predetermined route that takes the aircraft from the last waypoint of its flight plan to the starting point of the approach, called Initial Approach Fix (IAF). Since STARs don't take the aircraft down to the runway, a single STAR may "feed" several approaches with the same IAF. For this reason, airports usually have only a few STARs for arrivals from the North, South, East and West.

As with SIDs, the main diagram shows the flight path to be followed. The most important items are:

	Waypoints (defined by Navaids, Headings and Distances) - must be followed precisely
	Holdings (most STARs contain one or more holdings) - must be executed on ATC request
	Altitude and Speed Restrictions - must be observed except when ATC instructs otherwise

Phonetic Alphabet

Traffic Pattern

Aircraft approaching a runway for landing follow a pattern. In most cases, the pattern is a rectangular box with the pilot making all turns to the left. In a few cases, airports will use right traffic patterns. Pilots announce their position using the names for legs of the traffic pattern (ex. Clinton traffic, Cessna Skyhawk N9COF, downwind, runway 21, Clinton Traffic.) Remember that some aircraft that are not equipped with radios will be operating at un-controlled airports, so always visually scan for traffic.

V-Speeds

V-Speed	Definition	Airspeed Indicator Marking
V_SO	Stall speed, flaps down, power off	bottom of white arc
V_S	Stall speed, flaps up, power off	bottom of green arc
V_X	Best angle-of-climb speed	none
V_Y	Best rate-of-climb speed	none
V_FE	Maximum flaps-extended speed	Top of white arc
V_A	Maneuvering speed	none
V_NO	Maximum Structural cruise speed	Upper limit of green arc
V_NE	Never-exceed speed	Top of Red line
V_YSE	Best Single Engine Speed Rate of climb	Blue line
V_MC	Minimum Controllable Airspeed	Bottom of green Line

(For indicator markings, refer to the airspeed indicator picture, located under "Instruments")